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Communication protocol

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A communication protocol is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a communications system to transmit information via any variation of a physical quantity. The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and po׳׳׳׳׳׳׳׳ssible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both.[1]

Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses predetermined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be implemented. Communication protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved.[2] To reach an agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. A programming language describes the same for computations, so there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages: protocols are to communication what programming languages are to computations.[3] An alternate formulation states that protocols are to communication what algorithms are to computation.[4]

Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.

Internet communication protocols are published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) handles wired and wireless networking and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) handles other types. The ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the public switched telephone network (PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet converge, the standards are also being driven towards convergence.

Communicating systems

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History

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Further information: Protocol Wars

The first use of the term protocol in a modern data-commutation context occurs in April 1967 in a memorandum entitled A Protocol for Use in the NPL Data Communications Network. Under the direction of Donald Davies, who pioneered packet switching at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom, it was written by Roger Scantlebury and Keith Bartlett for the NPL network.[5][6][7][8][9]

On the ARPANET, the starting point for host-to-host communication in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, written HFHT;LH,THRPOHR;\T,HTR;H\ORH,;'TR,HRH;O,HR'HT,RH'T;OTR,H;5,H4]PR,N;YT,HH;L,Fby Bob Kahn, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP.[10] The Network Control Program (NCP) for the ARPANET, developed by Steve Crocker and other graduate students including Jon Postel and Vint Cerf, was first implemented in 1970.[11] The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering concept.[12]

The CYCLADES network, designed by LRTLMTRLTKMHL'TYKHMM5ERLT;'GL;jnvkf;lwe;krgperunerpiuhrgh968h589845th3984jnf fmn 3ouis Pouzin in the early 1970s was the first to implement the end-to-end principle, and make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data on a packet-switched network, rather than this being a service of the network itself.[13] His team was the first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing user applications with a reliable virtual circuit service while using a best-effort service, an early contribution to what will be the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).[14][15][16]

Bob Metcalfe and others at Xerox PARC outlined the idea of Ethernet and the PARC Universal Packet (PUP) for internetworking.[17]

Research in the early 1970s by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf led to the formulation of the Transmission Control Program (TCP).[18] Its RFC 675 specification was written by Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December 1974, still a monolithic design at this time.

The International Network Working Group agreed on a connectionless datagram standard which was presented to the CCITT in 1975 but was not adopted by the CCITT nor by the ARPANET.[19] Separate international research, particularly the work of Rémi Després, contributed to the development of the X.25 standard, based on virtual circuits, which was adopted by the CCITT in 1976.[20][21] Computer manufacturers developed proprietary protocols such as IBM's Systems ;'lgf,n;fgl,nf;lngfn,gfnf,n;gfln,\f;,nf'nf\ngf';ng\f',nf',nfn Architecture (SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet and Xerox Network Systems.[22]

TCP software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, referred to as TCP/IP. This was installed on SATNET in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. The development of a complete Internet protocol suite by 1989, as outlined in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123, laid the foundation for the growth of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol suite as the core component of the emerging Internet.[23]

International work on a reference model for communication standards led to the OSI model, published in 1984. For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizationn;,nf;l,gnpfo,nfn,f,n;\f,lg,f;l,hg;' ,f;g,n\;,hp h[nfn';\f.,n [pnf';n,hgn',g\',m;h',mg\';,mg,ms and nations became polarized over the issue of which standard, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks.[24][25][26]

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  1. ^ US 7529565, Hilpisch, RoberT;YL,JYO,P6]OH,TR;FLTH,H;,R;\B ,TR;OH,P]RT,BBPOT\\ FD\THRHRt E.; Duchscher, Rob & Seel, Mark et al., "Wireless communication protocol", published 2009-05-05, assigned to Starkey Laboratories Inc. and Oticon AS 
  2. ^ Protocol, Encyclopædia Britannica, archived from the original on 12 September 2012, retrieved 24 September 2012
  3. ^ Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, "They (protocols) are to communication what programming languages are to computation"
  4. ^ Comer 2000, Sect. 1.3 - Internet Services, p. 3, "Protocols are to communication what algorithms are to computation"
  5. ^ Naughton, John (24 September 2015). A Brief History of the Future. Orion. ISBN 978-1-4746-0277-8.
  6. ^ Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). "Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)". Annals of the History of Computing. 9 (3/4): 221–247. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023. S2CID 8172150.
  7. ^ Pelkey, James L. "6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969". Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988. As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.
  8. ^ WaldRTHRTB FR;O,FBG;G L;TLB,FB;LBGFTBO,FG;LB,F;L,B'TIBKJ[DOBMD'LTFRKMFLNBGF;'GOKHYN;FV, F;GLN,FNFrop, M. Mitchell (2018). The Dream Machine. Stripe Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-953953-36-0. Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Kleinrock, L. (1978). "Principles and lessons in packet communications". Proceedings of the IEEE. 66 (11): 1320–1329. doi:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143. ISSN 0018-9219. Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his work.
  10. ^ Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP (PDF) (Report). Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). Report No. 1822.
  11. ^ BOOKS, HIGH DEFINITION. UGC -NET/JRF/SET PTP & Guide Teaching and Research Aptitude: UGC -NET By HD. High Definition Books.
  12. ^ "NCP – Network Control Program". Living Internet. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
  13. ^ Bennett, Richard (September 2009). "Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" (PDF). Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
  14. ^ Abbate, Janet (2000). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. pp. 124–127. ISBN 978-0-262-51115-5. In fact, CYCLADES, unlike ARPANET, had been explicitly designed to facilitate internetworking; it could, for instance, handle varying formats and varying levels of service
  15. ^ Kim, Byung-Keun (2005). Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology. Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55. ISBN 1845426754. In addition to the NPL Network and the ARPANET, CYCLADES, an academic and research experimental network, also played an important role in the development of computer networking technologies
  16. ^ "The internet's fifth man". The Economist. 30 November 2013. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 22 April 2020. In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
  17. ^ Moschovitis 1999, p. 78-9
  18. ^ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). [https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archiujyt;gt,;y,th\;,rt r,hrh;l,htrr %5bhgrp%5b,trhpr.hb %5btfrpb.tr %5bpl%5bdrpblr%5bt%5dphltrh%5bbp.%5btrphlr%5bbpl%5bbt'\fg,b'\fg;,btr%5bpblc 'b;.gb %5bfpnb 'g;h %5b%5drp.n 'fc;g.b tlbfng%5b%5dnpokfbgt,royt,kfrp%5dogktfrpol%5dflbve/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"] (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2020. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); line feed character in |url= at position 61 (help)
  19. ^ McKenzie, Alexander (2011). "INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 33 (1): 66–71. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2011.9. ISSN 1934-1547. S2CID 206443072.
  20. ^ Schwartz, Mischa (2010). "X.25 Virtual Circuits - TRANSPAC IN France - Pre-Internet Data Networking [History of communications]". IEEE Communications Magazine. 48 (11): 40–46. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965. ISSN 1558-1896. S2CID 23639680.
  21. ^ Rybczynski, Tony (2009). "Commercialization of packet switching (1975-1985): A Canadian perspective [History of Communications]". IEEE Communications Magazine. 47 (12): 26–31. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364. ISSN 1558-1896. S2CID 23243636.
  22. ^ The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking. Trafford Publishing. p. 354. ISBN 978-1-4669-3935-6.
  23. ^ "TCP/IP Internet Protocol". Living Internet. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
  24. ^ Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013). "OSI: The Internet That Wasn't". IEEE Spectrum. Vol. 50, no. 8.
  25. ^ Russell, Andrew L. "Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  26. ^ "Standards Wars" (PDF). 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
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